Columbia+spacecraft biography
Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
2003 American spacefaring accident
Not to be confused pertain to Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.
On Weekday, February 1, 2003, Space 1 Columbia disintegrated as it re-entered the atmosphere over Texas post Louisiana, killing all seven astronauts on board.
It was honourableness second Space Shuttle mission terminate end in disaster, after probity loss of Challenger and populace in 1986.
The mission, counted STS-107, was the twenty-eighth line for the orbiter, the 113th flight of the Space Transport fleet and the 88th sustenance the Challenger disaster.
It was dedicated to research in a number of fields, mainly on board integrity SpaceHab module inside the shuttle's payload bay. During launch, boss piece of the insulating bubbles broke off from the Trimming Shuttle external tank and pretended the thermal protection system tiles on the orbiter's left behindhand. Similar foam shedding had occurred during previous Space Shuttle launches, causing damage that ranged evade minor to near-catastrophic, but tiresome engineers suspected that the harm to Columbia was more earnest.
Before reentry, NASA managers yawning the investigation, reasoning that description crew could not have built-in the problem if it esoteric been confirmed. When Columbia reentered the atmosphere of Earth, magnanimity damage allowed hot atmospheric gases to penetrate the heat defence and destroy the internal away from home structure, which caused the equipment to become unstable and epoch apart.
After the disaster, Place Shuttle flight operations were swinging for more than two as they had been afterwards the Challenger disaster. Construction holiday the International Space Station (ISS) was paused until flights resumed in July 2005 with STS-114. NASA made several technical and governmental changes to subsequent missions, together with adding an on-orbit inspection line of attack determine how well the orbiter's thermal protection system (TPS) difficult endured the ascent, and safekeeping designated rescue missions ready donation case irreparable damage was inaugurate.
Except for one mission make inquiries repair the Hubble Space Crush, subsequent Space Shuttle missions were flown only to the Cast off to allow the crew equal use it as a altar if damage to the equipment prevented safe reentry. The unused four orbiters were retired sustenance the building of the Turn down was completed.
Background
Space Shuttle
Main article: Space Shuttle
The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable spacecraft operated by the U.S.
National Aviation and Space Administration (NASA).[1]: 5, 195 Pass flew in space for position first time in April 1981,[2]: III-24 stream was used to conduct in-orbit research,[2]: III-188 and deploy commercial, noncombatant, and scientific payloads.: jenkins2016 : III-66, 68, 148 At fascination, it consisted of the satellite, which contained the crew unthinkable payload, the external tank (ET), and the two solid rise boosters (SRBs).[3]: 363 The orbiter was a reusable, winged vehicle lose one\'s train of thought launched vertically and landed renovation a glider.[2]: II-1 Five operational orbiters were built during the Elbow-room Shuttle program.[1]: 5 Columbia was birth first space-rated orbiter constructed, shadowing the atmospheric test vehicle Enterprise.
The orbiter contained the proletariat compartment, where the crew principally lived and worked throughout out mission.[2]: II-5 Three Space Shuttle continue engines (SSMEs) were mounted tear the aft end of primacy orbiter and provided thrust extensive launch.[3]: II-170 Once in space, position crew maneuvered using the span smaller, aft-mounted Orbital Maneuvering Custom (OMS) engines.[3]: II-79
The orbiter was quiet from heat during reentry exceed the thermal protection system (TPS), a thermal soaking protective contact around the orbiter.
In oppose with previous US spacecraft, which had used ablative heat shields, the reusability of the satellite required a multi-use heat shield.[4]: 72–73 During reentry, the TPS acquainted temperatures up to 1,600 °C (3,000 °F), but had to keep rectitude orbiter vehicle's aluminum skin freshen below 180 °C (350 °F).
The TPS primarily consisted of four sub-systems. The nose cone and cover edges of the wings knowledgeable temperatures above 1,300 °C (2,300 °F), build up were protected by the multifarious material reinforced carbon–carbon (RCC). Thicker RCC was developed and installed in 1998 to prevent hurt from micrometeoroid and orbital debris.[2]: II-112–113 The entire underside of influence orbiter vehicle, as well brand the other hottest surfaces, were protected with black high-temperature recyclable surface insulation.
Areas on rank upper parts of the satellite vehicle were covered with snowy low-temperature reusable surface insulation, which provided protection at temperatures beneath 650 °C (1,200 °F). The payload yell doors and parts of influence upper wing surfaces were icy with reusable felt surface insularity, as the temperature there remained below 370 °C (700 °F).[3]: 395
Two solid shoot up boosters (SRBs) were connected tend the ET, and burned diplomat the first two minutes splash flight.[3]: II-222 The SRBs separated newcomer disabuse of the ET once they difficult expended their fuel and integument into the Atlantic Ocean out of the sun a parachute.[3]: II-289 NASA retrieval teams recovered the SRBs and mutual them to the Kennedy Measurement lengthwise Center (KSC), where they were disassembled and their components were reused on future flights.[3]: II-292
When greatness Space Shuttle launched, the equipment and SRBs were connected dissertation the ET, which held high-mindedness fuel for the SSMEs.[3]: II-222 Primacy ET consisted of a cistern for liquid hydrogen (LH2), stored at −253 °C (−423 °F) and precise smaller tank for liquid gas (LOX), stored at −183 °C (−297 °F).
It was covered in motherly foam to keep the liquids cold and prevent ice formation on the tank's exterior. Glory orbiter connected to the Receive via two umbilicals near betrayal bottom and a bipod at hand its top section.[5]: 50–51 After treason fuel had been expended, magnanimity ET separated from the equipment and reentered the atmosphere, ring it would break apart by reentry and its pieces would land in the Indian up-to-the-minute Pacific Ocean.[3]: II-238
Debris strike concerns
During goodness design process of the Room Shuttle, a requirement of representation ET was that it would not release any debris divagate could potentially damage the equipment and its TPS.
The probity of the TPS components was necessary for the survival enjoy yourself the crew during reentry, settle down the tiles and panels were only built to withstand less minor impacts. On STS-1, integrity first flight of the Spaciousness Shuttle, the orbiter Columbia was damaged during its launch take from a foam strike.
Foam strikes occurred regularly during Space Plane launches; of the 79 missions with available imagery during father, foam strikes occurred on 65 of them.[5]: 121–122
The bipod connected nobility ET near the top respecting the front underside of authority orbiter via two struts touch a ramp at the cistern end of each strut; blue blood the gentry ramps were covered in effervescence to prevent ice from formation that could damage the satellite.
The foam on each bipod ramp was approximately 30 vulgar 14 by 12 inches (76 by 36 by 30 cm), avoid was carved by hand devour the original foam application.[6] Bipod ramp foam from the leftwing strut had been observed dropping off the ET on appal flights prior to STS-107, post had created some of ethics largest foam strikes that authority orbiter experienced.[note 1] The greatest bipod ramp foam strike occurred during STS-7; the orbiter's TPS was repaired after the estimate but no changes were obliged to address the cause make merry the bipod foam loss.[5]: 123 Abaft bipod foam loss on STS-32, NASA engineers, under the suspicion that the foam loss was due to pressure buildup backwards the insulation, added vent holes to the foam to developing gas to escape.
After straight bipod foam strike damaged goodness TPS on STS-50, internal NASA investigations concluded it was brainstorm "accepted flight risk" and ditch it should not be predisposed as a flight safety course. Bipod foam loss occurred young adult STS-52 and STS-62, but neither event was noticed until position investigation following Columbia's destruction.[5]: 124
During STS-112, which flew in October 2002, a 4-by-5-by-12-inch (10 by 13 by 30 cm) chunk of bipod ramp foam broke away non-native the ET bipod ramp queue hit the SRB-ET attachment preposterousness near the bottom of nobleness left SRB, creating a get hold of 4 inches (10 cm) wide tell off 3 inches (8 cm) deep.[5]: 124 Later the mission, the Program Complications Control Board declined to make something stand out the bipod ramp foam reverse as an in-flight anomaly.
Illustriousness foam loss was briefed struggle the STS-113 Flight Readiness Small, but the Program Requirements Lever Board decided that the Status was safe to fly.[5]: 125
A absurdity strike from the ablative info on the right SRB caused significant damage to Atlantis during character STS-27 launch on December 2, 1988.
On the second time of the flight the mob inspected the damage using pure camera on the remote operator system. The debris strike abstruse removed a tile; the wide-open orbiter skin was a hot section, and a burn-through firmness have occurred had the quicken been in a different end. After the mission, the NASA Program Requirements Control Board categorized the issue as an in-flight anomaly that was corrected pertain to the planned improvement for illustriousness SRB ablator.[5]: 127
Flight
Space Shuttle mission
Main article: STS-107
For STS-107, Columbia carried honesty SpaceHab Research Double Module, honourableness Orbital Acceleration Research Experiment, explode an Extended Duration Orbiter pallet.[5]: 30 The mission passed its pre-launch certifications and reviews, and began with the launch.
The reserve was originally scheduled to begin on January 11, 2001, on the contrary it was delayed thirteen days, until its launch on Jan 16, 2003.[5]: 28
The seven-member crew illustrate STS-107 were selected in July 2000.[5]: 28 The mission was demanded by Rick Husband, who was a colonel in the U.S.
Air Force and a express pilot. He had previously flown on STS-96.[7] The mission's exploratory was William McCool, a U.S. Navycommander who was on queen first spaceflight.[8] The payload man was Michael Anderson, a U.S. Air Force lieutenant colonel who had previously flown on STS-89.[9]Kalpana Chawla served as the trip engineer; she had previously flown on STS-87.[10]David Brown and Garter Clark, both Navy captains, flew as the mission specialists edge their first spaceflights.[11][12]Ilan Ramon, unornamented colonel in the Israeli Trench Force and the first State astronaut, flew as a consignment specialist on his first spaceflight.[13][5]: 29
Launch and debris strike
Columbia was launched from the Kennedy Space Spirit Launch Complex 39A (LC-39A) unexpected result 10:39:00 am.
At T+81.7 seconds, a well of foam approximately 21 come up to 27 inches (53 to 69 cm) long and 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 cm) state broke off from the unattended to bipod on the ET. Convenient T+81.9 seconds, the foam struck rendering reinforced carbon–carbon (RCC) panels internment Columbia's left wing at contingent velocity of 625 to 840 feet per second (426 set upon 573 mph; 686 to 922 km/h).[5]: 34 Honourableness foam's low ballistic coefficient caused it to lose speed these days after separating from the Chewing gum, and the orbiter ran prick the slower foam.[5]: 60 Neither prestige mission nor ground crew perceive the debris strike at leadership time.[5]: 140 The SRBs separated give birth to the ET at T+2 minutes obscure 7 seconds, followed by the ET's separation from the orbiter on tap T+8 minutes 30 seconds.[5]: 35 The ET disunion was photographed by Anderson extra recorded by Brown, but they did not record the bipod with missing foam.[5]: 148 At T+43 minutes, Columbia completed its orbital interjection as planned.[5]: 35
Flight risk management
After Columbia entered orbit, the NASA Intercenter Photo Working Group conducted grand routine review of videos a few the launch.
The group's analysts did not notice the garbage strike until the second allot of the mission. None tip the cameras that recorded picture launch had a clear come out of the debris striking position wing, leaving the group impotent to determine the level quite a lot of damage sustained by the equipment. The group's chair contacted Player Hale, the Shuttle Program Executive for Launch Integration, to call for on-orbit pictures of Columbia's barrier to assess its damage.
Subsequently receiving notification of the dross strike, engineers at NASA, In partnership Space Alliance, and Boeing composed the Debris Assessment Team settle down began working to determine rectitude damage to the orbiter.[5]: 140, 143 Intercenter Photo Working Group believed turn this way the orbiter's RCC tiles were possibly damaged; NASA program managers were less concerned over integrity danger caused by the crap strike.[5]: 141
Boeing analysts attempted to replica the damage caused to picture orbiter's TPS from the fizz strike.
The software models supposed damage that was deeper escape the thickness of the TPS tiles, indicating that the orbiter's aluminum skin would be naked in that area. The Doubletalk Assessment Team dismissed this contigency as inaccurate, because of former instances of predictions of slash anguish greater than the actual injury.
Further modeling specific to decency RCC panels used software tag to predict damage caused provoke falling ice. The software believable only one of 15 scenarios that ice would cause speed up, leading the Debris Assessment Body to conclude there was low damage due to the soften abstain from density of foam to ice.[5]: 143–145
To assess the possible damage divulge Columbia's wing, members of distinction Debris Assessment Team made diversified requests to get imagery take the orbiter from the Commission of Defense (DoD).
Imagery requests were channeled through both blue blood the gentry DoD Manned Space Flight Argumentation Office and the Johnson Time-span Center Engineering Directorate.[5]: 150–151 Hale matching the request through a DoD representative at KSC. The inquire was relayed to the U.S. Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM), which began identifying imaging assets that could observe the orbiter.
The symbolism request was soon rescinded manage without NASA Mission Management Team Armchair Linda Ham after she investigated the origin of it. She had consulted with Flight President Phil Engelauf and members contribution the Mission Management Team, who stated that they did troupe have a requirement for pictures of Columbia.
Ham did yell consult with the Debris Help Team, and cancelled the images request on the basis stroll it had not been enthusiastic through official channels.[5]: 152–153 Maneuvering rendering orbiter to allow its weigh wing to be imaged would have interrupted ongoing science axis, and Ham dismissed the DoD imaging capabilities as insufficient upon assess damage to the orbiter.[5]: 153–154 Following the rejection of their imagery request, the Debris Impost Team did not make mint requests for the orbiter say nice things about be imaged.[5]: 157
Throughout the flight, comrades of the Mission Management Body were less concerned than picture Debris Assessment Team about greatness potential risk of a vandalize strike.
The loss of bipod foam on STS-107 was compared to previous foam strike anecdote, none of which caused prestige loss of an orbiter unexpectedly crew. Ham, scheduled to duty as an integration manager mean STS-114, was concerned with righteousness potential delays from a bubble loss event.[5]: 147–148 Mission management too downplayed the risk of rendering debris strike in communications brains the crew.[5]: 161 [5]: 159
During ascent at enclosing 80 seconds, photo analysis shows that some debris from blue blood the gentry area of the -Y Entail Bipod Attach Point came loosen and subsequently impacted the equipment left wing, in the step of transition from Chine fall upon Main Wing, creating a moisture of smaller particles.
The bearing appears to be totally avow the lower surface and pollex all thumbs butte particles are seen to travel over the upper surface fortify the wing. Experts have reviewed the high speed photography additional there is no concern fend for RCC or tile damage. Phenomenon have seen this same occurrence exception on several other flights pole there is absolutely no importance for entry.[5]: 159
The crew were as well sent a fifteen-second video friendly the debris strike in discourteously for a press conference, nevertheless were reassured that there were no safety concerns.[5]: 161
On January 26, the Debris Assessment Team ancient history that there were no protection concerns from the debris blockage.
The team's report was censorious of the Mission Management Side for asserting that there were no safety concerns before illustriousness Debris Assessment Team's investigation esoteric been completed.[5]: 164 On January 29, William Readdy, the Associate Curator for Space Flight, agreed discussion group DoD imaging of the equipment, but on the condition delay it would not interfere make contact with flight operations; ultimately, the satellite was not imaged by illustriousness DoD during the flight.
Spokesperson a Mission Management Team darling January 31, the day earlier Columbia reentered the atmosphere, decency Launch Integration Office voiced Ham's intention to review on-board to view the missing fizz, but concerns of crew conservation were not discussed.[5]: 166
Reentry
Columbia was timetabled to reenter the atmosphere vital land on February 1, 2003.
At 3:30 am EST the Admission Flight Control Team started neat shift at the Mission Catch Center.[5]: 38 On board the equipment, the crew stowed loose factors and prepared their equipment fail to distinguish reentry.[14]: 1.5
At 45 minutes before integrity deorbit burn, Husband and McCool began working through the archives checklist.[14]: 1.6 At 8:10 am the Bolus Communicator (CAPCOM), Charlie Hobaugh,[15] enlightened the crew that they were approved to conduct the deorbit burn.
At 8:15:30 the crew swimmingly executed the deorbit burn, which lasted 2 minutes and 38 seconds. Fuming 8:44:09 Columbia reentered the atmosphere oral cavity an altitude of 400,000 arms (120 km), a point named journal interface. The damage to loftiness TPS on the orbiter's assess wing allowed for hot aura to enter and begin pitiful the aluminum structure.[5]: 9 Four challenging a half minutes after door interface, a sensor began milieu greater-than-normal amounts of strain bail out the left wing; the sensor's data was recorded to inside storage and not transmitted keep from the crew or ground controllers.[5]: 38 The orbiter began to approval (yaw) to the left chimpanzee a result of the further drag on the left strength of will, but this was not fascinate by the crew or film control because of corrections munch through the orbiter's flight control system.[14]: 1.8 This was followed by sensors in the left wheel spasm reporting a rise in temperature.[14]: 1.10
At 8:53:46 am, Columbia crossed accompany the California coast; it was traveling at Mach 23 at aura altitude of 231,600 feet (70.6 km), and the temperature of fraudulence wings' leading edges was deemed to be 2,800 °F (1,540 °C).[5]: 38 Betimes after it entered California space, the orbiter shed several start of debris, events observed fasten down the ground as sudden increases in brightness of the resolve around the orbiter.
The MMACS officer reported that the hydraulic sensors in the left wave had readings below the sensors' minimum detection thresholds at 8:54:24 am. Columbia continued its reentry take traveled over Utah, Arizona, Pristine Mexico, and Texas, where observers would report seeing signs own up debris being shed.[5]: 39
At 8:58:03, prestige orbiter's aileron trim changed make the first move the predicted values because pressure the increasing drag caused alongside the damage to the heraldry sinister wing.
At 8:58:21, the satellite shed a TPS tile dump would later land in Littlefield, Texas; it would become goodness westernmost piece of recovered debris.[14]: 1.12 The crew first received operate indication of a problem scornfulness 8:58:39, when the Backup Course Software monitor began displaying blunder messages for a loss round pressure in the tires near the left landing gear.
Rectitude pilot and commander then stuffy indications that the status endlessly the left landing gear was unknown, as different sensors contemporaneous the gear was down bear locked or in the stowed position.[14]: 1.13 The drag of greatness left wing continued to lash the orbiter to the formerly larboard until it could no somebody be corrected using aileron put the finishing touches to.
The orbiter's Reaction Control Method (RCS) thrusters began firing day in to correct its orientation.[14]: 1.14
The thrashing of signal (LOS) from Columbia occurred at 8:59:32. Mission finger stopped receiving information from rendering orbiter at this time, allow Husband's last radio call be advantageous to "Roger, uh ..." was cut carry away mid-transmission.[5]: 39 [14]: 1.14 One of the circuitry in the flight control way was bypassed as the act out of a failed wire, stake a Master Alarm began garland on the flight deck.[14]: 1.15 Hiding of control of the equipment is estimated to have in operation several seconds later with topping loss of hydraulic pressure take precedence an uncontrolled pitch-up maneuver.[14]: 1.16 Dignity orbiter began flying along a- ballistic trajectory, which was seriously steeper and had more tug than the previous gliding trajectory.[14]: 1.17 The orbiter, while still move faster than Mach 15, entered into a flat spin reproach 30° to 40° per in a tick.
The acceleration that the mob was experiencing increased from around 0.8 g to 3 g, which would have likely caused giddiness and disorientation, but not incapacitation.[14]: 1.18 The autopilot was switched inhibit manual control and reset round the corner automatic mode at 9:00:03; that would have required the facts of either Husband or McCool, indicating that they were drawn conscious and able to ordain functions at the time.
Complete hydraulic pressure was lost, splendid McCool's final switch configurations acquit that he had tried spoil restore the hydraulic systems reduced some time after 9:00:05.[14]: 1.20
At 9:00:18, the orbiter began a afflicted breakup, and all on-board observations recording soon ceased.[14]: 1.20 Ground observers noted a sudden increase imprison debris being shed, and buzz on-board systems lost power.
Vulgar 9:00:25, the orbiter's fore take aft sections had separated detach from one another.[14]: 1.21 The sudden shove caused the crew compartment egg on collide with the interior bite the dust of the fuselage, resulting look the start of depressurization accomplish the crew compartment by 9:00:35.[14]: 1.22 The pieces of the equipment continued to break apart interested smaller pieces, and within a-ok minute after breakup were extremely small to be detected beside ground-based videos.
A NASA piece estimates that by 9:35, conclusion crew remains and a comfortable circumstances of debris had hit depiction ground.[14]: 1.77
The loss of signal occurred at a time when prestige Flight Control Team expected fleeting communication outages as the equipment stopped communication via the westbound tracking and data relay sputnik (TDRS).
Personnel in Mission Avert were unaware of the in-flight break-up, and continued to strive to reestablish contact with probity orbiter.[5]: 43 At approximately 9:06, while in the manner tha Columbia would have been control its final maneuvers to area, a Mission Control member orthodox a phone call concerning counsel coverage of the orbiter heartrending up.
This information was passed on to the Entry Soaring Director, LeRoy Cain, who initiated contingency procedures.[5]: 44 At KSC, circle Columbia had been expected foster land at 9:16, NASA Link up Administrator and former astronaut William Readdy also began contingency procedures after the orbiter did need land as scheduled.[17]: 5
Crew survivability
During reentry, all seven of the STS-107 crew members were killed, on the other hand the exact time of their deaths could not be chart.
The level of acceleration lose one\'s train of thought they experienced during crew lethal breakup was not lethal.[5]: 77 Rendering first lethal event the mob experienced was the depressurization reminisce the crew module. The work and exact time of pack up depressurization could not be dogged, but it occurred no after than 9:00:59 and was probable much earlier.
The remains counterfeit the crew members indicated they all experienced depressurization. The astronauts' helmets have a visor walk, when closed, can temporarily guard the crew member from depressurization. None of the crew employees had closed their visors, soar one was not wearing excellent helmet; this would indicate lose one\'s train of thought depressurization occurred quickly before they could take protective measures.
They were rendered unconscious or somebody within seconds and tissue accelerate was extensive enough that they could not have regained aura even if the cabin abstruse regained pressurization.[14]: 1.24 [18]: 89, 103
During and after goodness breakup of the crew coupling, the crew, either unconscious bamboozle dead, experienced rotation on consummate three axes.
The astronauts' hoist harnesses were unable to frustrate trauma to their upper grudging, as the inertia reel usage failed to retract sufficiently dissertation secure them, leaving them one restrained by their lap belts. The helmets were not conformal to the crew members' heads, allowing head injuries to go behind inside of the helmet. Picture neck ring of the helmet may have also acted chimpanzee a fulcrum that caused vertebral column barb and neck injuries.
The corporal trauma to the astronauts, who could not brace to dome such injuries, also could put on resulted in their deaths.[14]: 1.25 [18]: 103–105
The astronauts also likely suffered from goodly thermal trauma. Hot gas entered the disintegrating crew module, zealous the crew members, whose miserly were still somewhat protected impervious to their ACES suits.
Once birth crew module fell apart, primacy astronauts were violently exposed supplement windblast and a possible get nearer wave, which stripped their suits from their bodies. The crews' remains were exposed to red-hot gas and molten metal significance they fell away from high-mindedness orbiter.[18]: 106–108
After separation from the party module, the bodies of glory crew members entered an area with almost no oxygen, extremely low atmospheric pressure, and both high temperatures caused by drop, and extremely low ambient temperatures.[18]: 93 Their bodies hit the earth with lethal force.[14]: 1.29
At 14:04 Abduction (19:04 UTC), President George Unshielded.
Bush said in a televised address to the nation, "My fellow Americans, this day has brought terrible news, and giant sadness to our country. Fake 9:00 a.m. this morning, Mission Get in Houston lost contact give up your job our Space Shuttle Columbia. Marvellous short time later, debris was seen falling from the valhalla above Texas.
The Columbia review lost; there are no survivors."[19]
Recovery of debris
After the orbiter penurious up, reports came in yon eastern Texas law enforcement agencies of an explosion and easy debris.[17]: 59 Astronauts Mark Kelly playing field Gregory Johnson traveled on well-organized US Coast Guard helicopter munch through Houston to Nacogdoches,[17]: 61 and Jim Wetherbee drove a team possession astronauts to Lufkin to promote with recovery efforts.[17]: 61 Debris was reported from east Texas brushoff southern Louisiana.[17]: 96 Recovery crews gain local volunteers worked to allot and identify debris.[17]: 93
On the cardinal day of the disaster, searchers began finding remains of interpretation astronauts.[17]: 98 Within three days noise the crash, some remains vary every crew member had antediluvian recovered.[17]: 117 These recoveries occurred be a consequence a line south of Hemphill, Texas, and west of decency Toledo Bend Reservoir.[17]: 123 The last body of a crew affiliate was recovered on February 11.[17]: 131 The crew remains were enchanted to the Armed Forces of Pathology at Dover Shambles Force Base.[17]: 117
Immediately after the risk, the Texas Army National Realm deployed 300 members to aid with security and recovery, put forward the Coast Guard Gulf Storm out Team was assigned to relieve recover hazardous debris.[17]: 104 Over significance following days, the search grew to include hundreds of plebs from the Environmental Protection Commitee, US Forest Service, Civil Acceptable Patrol, and Texas and Louisiana public safety organizations, as come next as local volunteers.[17]: 119 In decency months after the disaster, honesty largest-ever organized ground search took place.[20] NASA officials warned preceding the dangers of handling vandalize, as it could have bent contaminated by propellants.[18]: 145 [21]
Soon after magnanimity accident, some individuals attempted anent sell Columbia debris on authority internet, including on the online auction website eBay.
Officials assume NASA were critical of these efforts, as the debris was NASA property and was necessary for the investigation.[22] A three-day amnesty period was offered receive recovered orbiter debris.[23] During that time, about 20 individuals contacted NASA to return debris, which included debris from the Challenger disaster.[18]: 118–119 [17]: 156 After the end fence the amnesty period, several settle were arrested for illegal plunder and possession of debris.[24]
Columbia's flight path data recorder was found close to Hemphill, Texas, 75 miles (121 km) southeast of Nacogdoches, on Foot it 19, 2003.[25]Columbia was the rule orbiter, and it had far-out unique flight data OEX (Orbiter EXperiments) recorder to record channel performance data during the drink flights.
The recorder was outstanding in Columbia after the introductory Shuttle test-flights were completed, most important began recording information 15 recently prior to reentry. The strip it recorded to was amenable at the time of character crash, but information from righteousness orbiter's sensors could have antediluvian recorded beforehand.[17]: 187–189 [26] Several days afterward, the tape was sent skill the Imation Corporation for away to be inspected and clean.
On March 25, the OEX's tape was sent to KSC, where it was copied mushroom analyzed.[17]: 190
On March 27, a Sound 407 helicopter that was build on used in the debris look into crashed due to mechanical inadequacy in the Angelina National Trees. The crash killed the aeronaut, Jules F.
Mier Jr., most recent a Texas Forest Service prowess specialist, Charles Krenek, and distressed three other crew members.[5]: 46 [27]
A status of Caenorhabditis elegans worms, capsulated in aluminum canisters, survived reentry and impact with the beginning and were recovered weeks tail the disaster.[28] The culture, which was part of an inquiry to research their growth childhood consuming synthetic nutrients, was arduous to be alive on Apr 28, 2003.[29]
NASA management selected righteousness Reusable Launch Vehicle hangar equal KSC to reconstruct recovered Columbia debris.
NASA Launch DirectorMichael Leinbach led the reconstruction team, which was staffed by Columbia engineers and technicians. Debris was place out on the floor decay the hangar in the out of condition of the orbiter to admit investigators to look for in the damage that unequivocal the cause of the disaster.[17]: 206–207 Astronaut Pamela Melroy was determined to oversee the six-person band reconstructing the crew compartment, which included fellow astronaut Marsha Ivins.[17]: 210–211
Recovered debris was shipped from glory field to KSC, where fail was unloaded and checked class see if it was infected by toxic hypergolic propellants.
Command piece of debris had rule out identifying number and a price tag indicating the coordinates where in the chips was found. Staff attached photographs and catalogued each piece check debris.[17]: 217 Recovered debris from heart the orbiter was placed wrapping a separate area, as business was not considered to possibility a contributor to the accident.[17]: 209–210 NASA conducted a fault species analysis to determine the variable causes of the accident, tube focused its investigations on primacy parts of the orbiter governing likely to have been answerable for the in-flight breakup.[17]: 215 Engineers in the hangar analyzed illustriousness debris to determine how integrity orbiter came apart.
Even albeit the crew compartment was whimper considered as a likely acquire of the accident, Melroy victoriously argued for its analysis figure up learn more about how secure safety systems helped, or bed demoted to help, the crew survive.[17]: 224–225 The tiles on the nautical port wing were studied to prove the nature of the afire and melting that occurred.
Justness damage to the debris definitive that the breach began decay the wing's leading edge, though hot gas to get over and done with the orbiter's thermal protection system.[17]: 232
The search for Columbia debris extinct in May.[17]: 203 Approximately 83,900 split from of debris were recovered, similarity 84,900 pounds (38,500 kg), which was about 38 percent of rank orbiter's overall weight.
When decency CAIB report was released, recall 40,000 recovered pieces of absurdity had not been identified.[30]: 1 Grow weaker recovered non-human Columbia debris was stored in unused office timespan at the Vehicle Assembly Capital, except for parts of dignity crew compartment, which were set aside separate.[31] By the end business reconstruction efforts only 720 reality remained classified as unknown.[17]: 218
In July 2011, lower water levels caused by a drought revealed copperplate four-foot-diameter (1.2 m) piece of junk in Lake Nacogdoches.
NASA unflinching the piece as a autonomy reactant storage and distribution tank.[32]
Columbia Accident Investigation Board
Main article: Columbia Accident Investigation Board
About ninety scarcely after the disaster, NASA Warden Sean O'Keefe called to gather the Columbia Accident Investigation Plank (CAIB) to determine the cause.[5]: 231 [33] It was chaired by solitary U.S.
Navy Admiral Harold Unguarded. Gehman, Jr. and included soldierly and civilian analysts. It at first consisted of eight members, together with Gehman, but expanded to 13 members by March. The CAIB members were notified by noontide on the day of rectitude accident, and participated in trim teleconference that evening. The succeeding day, they traveled to Barksdale AFB to begin the subject.
The CAIB members first toured the debris fields, and therefore established their operations at JSC. The CAIB established four teams to investigate NASA management come first program safety, NASA training courier crew operations, the technical aspects of the disaster, and notwithstanding NASA culture affected the Permission Shuttle program.
These groups collaborated, and hired other support rod to investigate.[5]: 231–232 The CAIB la-de-da alongside the reconstruction efforts switch over determine the cause of nobility accident, and interviewed members spot the Space Shuttle program, inclusive of those who had been concerned with STS-107.[5]: 234–235 The CAIB conducted public hearings from March depending on June,[5]: 237–238 and released its in response report in August 2003.[5]: 2
Cause be partial to the accident
After looking at tentacle data, the CAIB considered mutilation to the left wing renovation a likely culprit for Columbia's destruction.
It investigated that better debris and noted the unlikeness in heat damage between rank two wings. RCC panels do too much the left wing were derrick in the western portion depose the debris field, indicating go off it was shed first in the past the rest of the equipment disintegrated.[5]: 73–74 X-ray and chemical analysis was conducted on the RCC panels, revealing the highest levels translate slag deposits to be bayou the left wing tiles.[5]: 75–76 Moment testing was conducted at ethics Southwest Research Institute, using unadulterated nitrogen-powered gun to fire wonderful projectile made of the by a long way material as the ET bipod foam.
Panels taken from Enterprise, Discovery, and Atlantis were down at heel to determine the projectiles' concern on RCC panels.[5]: 79–80 A longest on RCC panel 8, taken carry too far Atlantis, was the most dedicated with the damage observed intelligence Columbia, indicating it was significance damaged panel that led cope with the in-flight breakup.[5]: 82–83
Organizational culture
The CAIB was critical of NASA managerial culture, and compared its offering state to that of NASA leading up to the Challenger disaster.[5]: 99 It concluded that NASA was experiencing budget constraints to the fullest extent a finally still expecting to keep nifty high level of launches abstruse operations.[5]: 100 Program operating costs were lowered by 21% from 1991 to 1994,[5]: 107 despite a arranged increase in the yearly winging rate for assembly of excellence International Space Station.[5]: 114 Despite adroit history of foam strike actions, NASA management did not phraseology the potential risk to blue blood the gentry astronauts as a safety-of-flight issue.[5]: 126 The CAIB found that spruce up lack of a safety syllabus led to the lack acquire concern over foam strikes.[5]: 177 Rectitude board determined that NASA wanted the appropriate communication and compounding channels to allow problems tip off be discussed and effectively routed and addressed.[5]: 187 This risk was further compounded by pressure come to adhere to a launch list of appointments for construction of the ISS.[5]: 198
Possible emergency procedures
In its report, influence CAIB discussed potential options dump could have saved Columbia's crew.[34] They determined that the similitude could have been extended pause at most 30 days (February 15), after which the metal hydroxide canisters used to depart carbon dioxide would have aboriginal out.[5]: 173 On STS-107, Columbia was carrying the Extended Duration Equipment, which increased its supply show signs oxygen and hydrogen.[35]: 398 To build up the mission duration, non-essential systems would have been powered down,[35]: 399 and animals in the Spacehab module would have been euthanized.[35]: 397
When STS-107 launched, Atlantis was undergoing preparation for the STS-114 get on on March 1, 2003.
Difficult to understand NASA management decided to begin a rescue mission, an accelerated process could have begun belong launch it as a liberate vehicle. Some pre-launch tests would have been eliminated to abide it to launch on while. Atlantis would have launched attain additional equipment for EVAs, at an earlier time launched with a minimum needed crew.
It would have rendezvoused with Columbia, and the STS-107 crew would have conducted EVAs to transfer to Atlantis. Columbia would have been remotely deorbited; as Mission Control would be blessed with been unable to remotely disarray it, it would have bent disposed of in the Appeasing Ocean.[35]: 400–404
The CAIB also investigated prestige possibility of on-orbit repair make merry the left wing.
Although in attendance were no materials or adhesives onboard Columbia that could keep survived reentry, the board researched the effectiveness of stuffing means from the orbiter, crew hunting lodge, or water into the RCC hole. They determined that honesty best option would have bent to harvest tiles from curb places on the orbiter, petit mal them, and then stuff them into the RCC hole.
Agreed-upon the difficulty of on-orbit keep and the risk of supplemental damaging the RCC tiles, rectitude CAIB determined that the distinct possibility of a successful on-orbit subsistence would have been low.[35]: 405–406
NASA response
Space Shuttle updates
The Space Shuttle promulgation was suspended after the deprivation of Columbia.[36] The further gloss of the International Space Spot (ISS) was delayed, as integrity Space Shuttle had been bound for seven missions to rendering ISS in 2003 and 2004 to complete its construction.[37] Homily prevent future foam strikes, honourableness ET was redesigned to carry away foam from the bipod.
In preference to, electric heaters were installed term paper prevent ice building up pressure the bipod due to influence cold liquid oxygen in academic feedlines.[38] Additional heaters were as well installed along the liquid o line, which ran from loftiness base of the tank face its interstage section.[39] NASA besides improved its ground imaging parts at Kennedy Space Center just about better observe and monitor imaginable issues that occur during fascination.
The existing cameras at LC-39A, LC-39B, and along the glide were upgraded, and nine another camera sites were added. Cameras were added to the bellies of Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour (only Columbia and Challenger locked away them prior) to allow digital images of the ET jab be viewed on the dirt soon after launch.
The former system on Columbia used lp and could only be downlinked after the orbiter returned give a lift Earth.[38] The Orbiter Boom Mast System, a camera on primacy end of the Canadarm, was added to allow the commonalty to inspect the orbiter characterize any tile damage once they reached orbit.[40][41] Each of influence orbiter's wings was equipped implements 22 temperature sensors to voice any breaches during reentry cope with with 66 accelerometers to instigate an impact.
Post-landing inspection procedures were updated to include technicians examining the RCC panels acquisition flash thermography.[40]
As well as greatness updates to the orbiter, NASA prepared contingency plans in excellence event that a mission would be unable to safely crop growing.
The plan involved the grounded mission docking with the Hoot, on which the crew would inspect and attempt to rite the damaged orbiter. If they were unsuccessful, they would tarry aboard the ISS and stay for a rescue.[42]: 81 The set free mission, designated STS-3xx, would befit activated, and would use goodness next-in-line hardware for the equipment, ET, and SRBs.
The exactly time to launch would adjust 35 days, as that was the requirement to prepare set in motion facilities.[42]: 89–91 Before the arrival loom the rescue mission, the cast away crew would power up honourableness damaged orbiter, which would weakness remotely controlled as it was undocked and deorbited, and academic debris would land in illustriousness Pacific Ocean.[42]: 62 The minimal group would launch, dock with position ISS, and spend a time transferring astronauts and equipment previously undocking and landing.[42]: 89–91
First Return drop in Flight mission (STS-114)
Main article: STS-114
The first Return to Flight life`s work, STS-114, began with the on of Discovery on July 26, 2005, at 10:39 am (EDT).[43] Cardinal pieces of foam from distinction ET were dislodged during character launch that were large sufficiency to be considered significant from end to end of NASA investigators,[44]: 7 including one entirety that was approximately 36 invitation 11 inches (91 by 28 cm).[44]: 18 Post-launch investigations did not surprise any indications of damage elude the foam loss, but Snug video did reveal that straighten up small piece of TPS obvious from the nose landing cog fell off during launch.[45] Down tools reaching orbit the crew inspected Discovery with the Orbiter Relation Sensor System.
On July 29 Discoveryrendezvoused with the ISS humbling, before docking, performed the be foremost rendezvous pitch maneuver to affair the crew aboard the Remove to observe and photograph decency orbiter's belly.[46] The next apportion, astronauts Soichi Noguchi and Writer Robinson performed the first commandeer three spacewalks.
They tested deft tile repair tool, the Flux Wash Applicator, on intentionally bedraggled TPS tiles that had antiquated brought in the payload bay.[47]: 62 On August 3 the changeless astronauts performed the third EVA of the mission, during which Robinson stood on the ISS's Canadarm2 and went to Discovery's belly to remove two space fillers between tiles that challenging begun to protrude.[47]: 63 [48] After neat as a pin delay due to bad off-colour at KSC, the decision was made to land at Theologizer AFB.
Discovery successfully landed even 8:11 am (EDT) on August 9.[43][46] Had Discovery been unable in all directions safely land, the crew would have remained on the Kick out until Atlantis was flown memo rescue them.[49] As a play a part of the foam loss, NASA grounded the Space Shuttle armada again.[36][45]
Second Return to Flight proffer (STS-121)
Main article: STS-121
To address decency problem of foam loss joyfulness the second Return to Winging mission (STS-121), NASA engineers refreshing the foam ramp from honourableness protuberance air load (PAL) dispose the ET, which was greatness source of the largest extract of debris on STS-114.[50] Dignity launch was postponed from close-fitting scheduled launch of July 1, 2006, and again on July 2 due to inclement ride out at KSC.[51] On July 3 a piece of foam roughly 3 by .25 inches (7.62 by 0.64 cm) and weighing 0.0057 pounds (2.6 g) broke off alien the ET.[52][53] The mission immobilize launched as scheduled at 2:38 pm (EDT) on July 4.[54] Afterwards reaching orbit, Discovery performed post-launch inspections of its TPS skull docked with the ISS impersonation July 6.[51] The orbiter go a 28 feet (8.5 m) secluded control orbiter in-flight maintenance send that could connect the excursion deck systems to the avionics system in the mid-deck; cut back would allow the spacecraft get in touch with be landed remotely, to embrace controlling the landing gear enthralled deploying the parachute.[55][56] On July 12 astronauts Piers Sellers countryside Michael Fossum performed an EVA to test the NonOxide Tacky eXperiment (NOAX), which applied jealous sealant to samples of impaired TPS tiles.[47]: 70 Discovery undocked from decency ISS on July 14 champion safely landed at 9:14 am animated July 17 at KSC.[51] Challenging the crew been stranded interpose orbit, NASA planned to commence Atlantis to rescue them propagate the ISS.[57][58]
Program cancellation
In January 2004 President Bush announced the Far-sightedness for Space Exploration, calling compel the Space Shuttle fleet tote up complete the ISS and titter retired by 2010, to designate replaced by a newly ahead Crew Exploration Vehicle for proceed to the Moon and Mars.[59] In 2004, NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe canceled a planned utility of the Hubble Space Radio telescope and decided that future missions would all rendezvous with magnanimity ISS to ensure the safekeeping of the crew.[60] In 2006, his successor, Michael Griffin, definite to have one more service mission to the telescope, STS-125, which flew in May 2009.[61][62] The retirement of the Distance end to end Shuttle was delayed until 2011,[63][64] after which no further crewed spacecraft were launched from primacy United States until 2020 as SpaceX's Crew Dragon Demo-2 flow successfully carried NASA astronauts Doug Hurley and Robert Behnken done the ISS.[65]
Legacy
On February 4, 2003, President Bush and his better half Laura led a memorial charter for the astronauts' families shake-up the Johnson Space Center.
Match up days later, Vice President Detective Cheney and his wife Lynne led a similar service get rid of impurities Washington National Cathedral. Patti LaBelle sang "Way Up There" similarly part of the service.[66] Systematic memorial service was held uncertain KSC on February 7; Parliamentarian Crippen, the first pilot have possession of Columbia, gave a eulogy long the crew and a party for Columbia herself, acknowledging haunt achievements as the first satellite and NASA's flagship, her duty in trying desperately to set apart the crew on STS-107, direct her many missions dedicated secure scientific research.[17]: 155 On October 28, 2003, the names of honourableness crew were added to class Space Mirror Memorial at description KSC Visitor Complex in Merritt Island, Florida, alongside the obloquy of 17 other astronauts esoteric cosmonauts who have died shut in the line of duty.[67] Account February 2, 2004, NASA Head O'Keefe unveiled a memorial extend the STS-107 crew at Metropolis National Cemetery, and it admiration located near the Challenger memorial.[68] A tree for each space traveller was planted in NASA's Spaceman or sp Memorial Grove at the Lexicographer Space Center, along with in the clear for each astronaut from distinction Apollo 1 and Challenger disasters.[69] The exhibit Forever Remembered batter KSC Visitor Complex features honesty cockpit window frames from Columbia.[70] In 2004, Bush conferred posthumous Congressional Space Medals of Take to all 14 crew comrades killed in the Challenger courier Columbia accidents.[71]
NASA named several chairs in honor of Columbia squeeze the crew.
Seven asteroids observed in July 2001 were dubbed after astronauts: 51823 Rickhusband, 51824 Mikeanderson, 51825 Davidbrown, 51826 Kalpanachawla, 51827 Laurelclark, 51828 Ilanramon, 51829 Williemccool.[72] On Mars, the pier site of the roverSpirit was named Columbia Memorial Station, sit included a memorial plaque acknowledge the Columbia crew mounted use up the back of the buzz gain antenna.[73] A complex be frightened of seven hills east of significance Spirit landing site was styled the Columbia Hills; each sequester the seven hills was 1 named for a member register the crew,[74] and the nomad explored the summit of Keep in reserve Hill in 2005.[75] In 2006, the IAU approved naming cardinal lunar craters after the astronauts.[76]
In February 2006, NASA's National Mathematical Balloon Facility was renamed say publicly Columbia Scientific Balloon Facility.[77] Straighten up supercomputer built in 2004 turnup for the books the NASA Advanced Supercomputing Partitioning was named "Columbia".[78] The final part of the system, first name "Kalpana", was dedicated to Chawla, who had worked at description Ames Research Center before on the verge of the Space Shuttle program.[79] Integrity first dedicated meteorological satellite launched by the Indian Space Investigation Organisation (ISRO), Metsat-1, was renamed to Kalpana-1 on February 5, 2003, after Chawla.[80][81]
In 2003, nobility airport in Amarillo, Texas, veer Husband was from, was renamed to the Rick Husband City International Airport.[82] A mountain time in the Sangre de Cristo Range in the Colorado Range was renamed Columbia Point